Glossary

The Savage Act was the original name of the Indian Act, which remained in effect under that name until 1952. Enacted in 1876, this law represented a comprehensive overhaul of all previous legislation concerning First Nations in Canada. It granted First Nations members a conditional citizenship status that was distinct from that of the rest of the Canadian population. It was through this act that certain terms were introduced into the legal framework: band, reserve, Indian status, etc.

An elder is a person recognized by their community for their wisdom and experience. It is important to note that an Indigenous elder is not necessarily an older person, and that not all older people are elders.

In Canada, this term refers to all people who are not members of an Indigenous group.

A term referring to the Indigenous peoples of the Americas. Introduced in the early 20th century, primarily in scientific circles, it was intended to distinguish the “Indians” of the Americas from the Indians of the Indian subcontinent. This term is now obsolete and considered derogatory. To refer to these peoples, it is preferable to use the term “Indigenous peoples of the Americas.”

The Anishinaabe Nation is present in communities in Abitibi-Témiscamingue in Quebec, in Ontario, and in the northeastern United States as far as Montana. Their language, Anishinaabemowin, belongs to the Algonquian language group. In Quebec, their communities are Pikogan, Lac-Simon, Timiskaming, Kitcisakik, Winneway, Lac-Rapide, Wolf Lake, Kebaowek, and Kitigan Zibi.

In 1982, the Canadian government enacted the Constitution Act. Section 35 of that Act recognizes the aboriginal, existing, and treaty rights of Indigenous peoples, which are thereby protected by the Constitution. Section 35 also specifies that Indigenous peoples in Canada include First Nations, Inuit, and Métis.

The Assembly of First Nations (AFN) is a national political representative body for First Nations across Canada. Formerly known as the National Indian Brotherhood of Canada, the AFN advocates for the interests and rights of First Nations before Canadian government bodies. The Assembly is led by a National Chief and is composed of regional chiefs representing the provinces and territories. The AFN is not a government body with the authority to impose decisions on Indigenous communities; rather, it serves as a forum for political consultation and a voice for the interests of First Nations.

Founded in 1985, the AFNQL is a political advocacy organization representing First Nations in Quebec and Labrador. Composed of an Assembly Chief and the chiefs of the 43 First Nations communities in Quebec and Labrador, the AFNQL serves as a coordinating body and spokesperson for the interests and rights of First Nations. It also provides various services to Indigenous communities, notably through its commissions, which work in different areas such as health and social services, education, and sustainable development.

The Atikamekw Nation is located in central Quebec and comprises three communities: Manawan, Opitciwan, and Wemotaci. Their language is Nehiromowin, which belongs to the Algonquian language group.

In Canada, the term “Indigenous” refers to the original peoples of North America and their descendants. The Canadian Constitution recognizes three groups of Indigenous peoples: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit.

The self-determination of indigenous peoples is a fundamental right that allows them to freely determine their political status and to ensure their economic, social, and cultural development.

Barriers rooted in the social or administrative structures of an organization or a network of organizations, including their physical accessibility, organizational policies, decision-making practices and processes, and institutional culture.

Thinking patterns that deviate from logic or rationality and lead to quick judgments and decisions that may be incorrect. These patterns can be conscious or unconscious and influence decisions.

An unconscious bias is an involuntary mental shortcut that leads us to make quick judgments about a person or group of people based on observed characteristics. Unconscious biases are a universal phenomenon among humans: they are an integral part of thought, cognitive processes, and our relationship with the world. These biases have repercussions at the individual, interpersonal, and intergroup levels, and can have significant negative consequences.

Aboriginal Friendship Centres are organizations that provide services to First Nations people living outside their communities, often in urban areas. The services offered are diverse and culturally tailored to Indigenous realities: health services, legal services, career counseling, education, and many others. Indigenous Friendship Centres also serve as places for Indigenous people in urban areas to meet and share experiences.

Among certain Indigenous nations, such as the Atikamekw, Innu, Cree, and Anishinaabeg, the territory is divided among families into family hunting territories. Each family hunting territory is managed by a steward responsible for the use of that territory, who oversees hunting and subsistence activities. This title is often granted to an experienced hunter who knows the territory well. This political structure, based on family traditions, gives the head of the family hunting territory the responsibility of ensuring that the rights of their family and the territory are respected.

Described at times as a system, at other times as a process or ideology, colonialism is a complex set of practices aimed at the occupation and exploitation of a territory by an outside group, to the detriment of the peoples living there. In Canada, the colonialism imposed on Indigenous peoples was reinforced by various laws, practices, and institutions, including the Indian Act, land dispossession, and residential schools. Many countries, including Canada, were built on colonialism, the repercussions of which are still very much felt today, particularly by Indigenous peoples.

The Commission of Inquiry into Relations between Indigenous Peoples and Certain Public Services, commonly known as the Viens Commission, was established in Quebec in 2016 with the aim of identifying the underlying causes of discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples in Quebec’s public services. The inquiry lasted three years and gathered more than 1,000 testimonies. In 2019, the commission published its final report, which included 142 recommendations covering a wide range of government services provided to Indigenous peoples.

The Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) was established in 2008 following the largest class-action lawsuit in Canadian history, brought by survivors of the residential school system. This class-action lawsuit compelled the Canadian government to establish the TRC, with the aim of informing Canadians about the history of residential schools and their impact on First Nations peoples. In 2015, following several hearings, extensive research, and testimony from survivors and their families, the TRC released its final reports. These reports contain 94 calls to action urging government bodies and other relevant stakeholders to address past wrongs in several areas, including language, justice, health, and culture.

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (RCAP) was established in 1991 by royal decree, following tensions between Indigenous peoples and the Canadian government, including the rejection of the Meech Lake Accord and the Oka crisis in Kanesatake. The commission’s mandate was to analyze the evolution of relations between Indigenous peoples and Canada, and to propose solutions to address the obstacles hindering contemporary relations. After five years of inquiry, the commission published its final report in 1996, in which it strongly recommended recognizing the self-determination and self-government of Indigenous peoples.

The Wabanaki Confederacy is a historic alliance between the W8banaki, Penobscot, Wolastoqey, Passamaquoddy, and Mi'kmaq nations, covering Acadia, part of Quebec, and the present-day states of New Hampshire, Maine, and Vermont. Historically, this alliance played a diplomatic and military role, with the goal of defending against external forces, particularly those of European settlers. Today, the Wabanaki Confederation serves to defend the ancestral rights and territories of its members, in addition to playing a role in cultural and linguistic revitalization. It is also seen as a symbol of solidarity and cooperation among the nations involved.

A band council is a local government structure of a First Nation established under the Indian Act. It typically consists of a chief and councilors, all of whom are elected by the community members. The band council is responsible for local community services, including housing, infrastructure, social programs, as well as language and culture. Its powers are broader than those of a municipality. Some communities have instead adopted the term “First Nation council” to replace this designation. It should be noted that the band council is not a form of traditional governance.

A tribal council is a regional political structure formed voluntarily by several band councils that share common interests. Tribal councils are responsible for coordinating public services in the communities they serve, including infrastructure management, human resources, and education. They also serve as a political voice to advocate for the shared rights of the communities they represent. It should be noted, however, that not all communities necessarily belong to a tribal council.

The James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (JBNQA) is recognized as Canada’s first modern treaty. Signed in 1975 by the Cree Nation of Eeyou Istchee, the Inuit of Nunavik, the governments of Quebec and Canada, Hydro-Québec, the James Bay Development Corporation, and the James Bay Energy Corporation, this agreement was reached following legal challenges by the Cree and Inuit against the James Bay hydroelectric project, which was launched without consultation in 1971. The JBNQA provides, in particular, for financial compensation for the Inuit and Cree of Eeyou Istchee and establishes a specific land management regime. It also creates Indigenous governance structures, notably the Cree Nation Government and the Kativik Regional Government.

The Northeastern Quebec Agreement (CNEQ), signed in 1978, is a modern treaty between the Naskapi of Kawawachikamach, the governments of Quebec and Canada, the James Bay Energy Corporation, the James Bay Development Corporation, and Hydro-Québec. The CNEQ is an extension of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, including the Naskapi among the nations benefiting from hydroelectric development projects in northern Quebec. It grants the Naskapi financial compensation, exclusive hunting, fishing, and trapping rights, as well as specific rights over certain categories of land, in exchange for development rights over other parts of the territory.

The Oka Crisis, also known as the Kanesatake Resistance, refers to a major, highly publicized conflict that took place in 1990 between the Kanien'kehá:ka (Mohawk) communities of Kanesatake and Kahnawake and the Quebec and Canadian authorities. The conflict erupted when the municipality of Oka planned to expand a golf course onto lands claimed for centuries by the Kanesatake community, including an ancestral cemetery. The communities then erected barricades to protect their territory and also blocked the Honoré-Mercier Bridge, leading to a confrontation with the Sûreté du Québec, and later the Canadian military. The conflict lasted 78 days, until the expansion project was abandoned. However, the lands were not returned to the Kanien'kehá:ka communities. This event marked a turning point in relations between the Quebec government and Indigenous peoples.

The United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP) is an international document adopted in 2007 by the UN General Assembly. This document recognizes the fundamental rights of indigenous peoples around the world, including their rights to self-determination and to the protection of their territories, cultures, languages, and legal systems. The UNDRIP serves as an international framework for state policies concerning Indigenous peoples and also acts as a tool for advocacy for Indigenous peoples worldwide. Canada adopted the UNDRIP in 2021 and uses it as a legislative guide for its action plan to advance the right to Indigenous self-determination in the country. Quebec, however, has still not adopted it.

Decolonization, reconciliation, and indigenization approaches—also known as DRA—are among the recommendations issued by several commissions of inquiry to address the injustices experienced by First Nations peoples, alongside cultural safety. Similar to equity, diversity, and inclusion (EDI) strategies, DRA approaches constitute distinct inclusion processes tailored to Indigenous people, as well as efforts to raise awareness of Indigenous realities in public, professional, and educational spaces. Decolonization aims to deconstruct colonialism and its legacies in our societies. Reconciliation requires a process of examining history and creating more just and harmonious relationships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples. Indigenization aims to create spaces for Indigenous concepts and approaches within laws, institutions, and public services. These three approaches are inseparable from one another and apply at multiple levels: personal, institutional, and societal.

An ancestral right is a collective right derived from a custom, practice, or tradition that was an integral part of an Indigenous group’s culture prior to contact with Europeans. For example, hunting, fishing, gathering, and land management are recognized as ancestral rights. However, ancestral rights take many forms and vary among Indigenous peoples. Section 35 of the Canadian Constitution recognizes and protects ancestral rights. Following the failure of constitutional conferences aimed at clarifying the Canadian Constitution of 1982, it is up to Canadian courts to define the concept of ancestral rights on a case-by-case basis.

A treaty right is a right guaranteed by a treaty between an Indigenous people and the Crown. These rights may include hunting, fishing, the use of treaty lands, financial and material compensation, or forms of self-determination within the territory. They may arise from historical treaties or modern treaties, such as the JBNQA. Treaty rights are protected by section 35 of the Canadian Constitution.

EDI refers to the principles of equity, diversity, and inclusion. These three dimensions form a framework aimed at creating environments that are fairer and more welcoming for everyone, regardless of their identities. EDI seeks to address the historical and contemporary systemic barriers faced by individuals and minority groups.

The Eeyou or Eenou Nation—the variant used depends on linguistic variations within the Cree language—is composed of nine communities located in Eeyou Istchee, their traditional territory in Quebec: Whapmagoostui, Wemindji, Chisasibi, Eastmain, Waskaganish, Nemaska, Mistissini, Ouje-Bougoumou, and Waswanipi. More broadly, the Cree peoples are found from northern Quebec to the Rocky Mountains. The language of the Cree of Eeyou Istchee is Iiyiyuu Ayimuun, which belongs to the Algonquian language family. Along with the Inuit and the Naskapi, they are the only signatories of a modern treaty in Quebec, namely the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement.

The National Inquiry into Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women and Girls (NMIWWG) is a commission of inquiry launched by the Government of Canada in 2016. Its mandate was to examine the disproportionate violence against Indigenous women, girls, and 2ELGBTQQIA+ people in Canada. The MMIWG Inquiry released its final report in 2019, titled Reclaiming Our Power and Place, which outlines 231 calls to action directed at governments, law enforcement, institutions, and the Canadian public.

Founded in 1974, the Quebec Native Women's Association is an organization representing First Nations women, both in rural communities and in urban areas. Its mission is to defend the rights, safety, living conditions, and equality of Indigenous women in Quebec. The Association is active in several areas, particularly in the political and socioeconomic spheres.

The Great Peace of Montreal is the name given to a peace treaty signed on August 4, 1701, between the French and their Indigenous allies on one side, and the Haudenosaunee Confederacy (formerly known as the Iroquois Confederacy) on the other, following several decades of hostilities. Approximately 1,300 delegates representing 39 Indigenous nations gathered in Montreal to discuss and conclude this peace agreement. The Great Peace of Montreal represents a landmark moment in the history of Franco-Indigenous relations.

The phrase “Indian time” is often associated with the stereotype that Indigenous people are perpetually late. It is a phrase that perpetuates prejudice and ignores the diversity of Indigenous conceptions of time.

The Innu Nation consists of nine communities in Quebec: Pakuashipi, La Romaine, Natashquan, Mingan, Uashat, Mani-Utenam, Pessamit, Essipit, and Mashteuiatsh. Their language is Innu Aimun, which belongs to the Algonquian language family. There are also Innu communities in Labrador.

Inuit Tapiriit Kanatami (ITK), whose name means “Inuit are united in Canada,” is the national representative body for Canada’s 51 Inuit communities. Founded in 1971, ITK seeks to promote and protect the rights, interests, culture, and language of the Inuit. It also provides services in the areas of education, language, health, housing, and climate change adaptation to communities. ITK is composed of a president, four voting members representing the four regional Inuit land claims organizations, and three non-voting members.

The Inuit people have communities in Nunavik, in northern Quebec. “Inuk” is the singular form, while “Inuit” is the plural form. Since “it” indicates the plural in Inuktitut, many choose not to add an “s” to the plural when referring to the Inuit. Inuit communities are also found in Labrador, Nunavut, Greenland, Alaska, and Russia. In Nunavik, their language is Inuktitut. The Inuit are signatories to one of the only modern treaties in Quebec: the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement.

Inuktitut is one of the main Inuit languages in Canada. It is spoken primarily in Nunavut, Nunavik, and certain communities in Nunatsiavut, Labrador.

ka (Mohawk): The Kanien'kehá:ka (Mohawk) Nation is present in southern Quebec, Ontario, and upstate New York, although its ancestral territory also extended into northern New England and south of the Great Lakes. There are three communities of this nation in Quebec: Kanehsatá:ke, Kahnawá:ke, and Akwesasne. Their language is Kanien'keha, which belongs to the Iroquoian language family.

The Algonquian languages form a large Indigenous language family spoken in North America, primarily in Canada and the United States. In Quebec, the nations whose languages belong to this family include the Anishinaabeg, the Atikamekw, the Cree, the W8banaki, the Mi'kmaq, the Wolastoqiyik, the Innu, and the Naskapi.

The Inuit languages belong to the broad Eskimo-Aleut language family. It should be noted that the term “Eskimo-Aleut” is appropriate for referring to this language family, although the term “Eskimo” should be avoided in any other context. In Canada, the Inuit languages mainly include Inuinnaqtun, Inuvialuktun, and Inuktitut. The latter is the language primarily spoken in the Inuit communities of Nunavik, Quebec.

The Iroquoian languages form an Indigenous language family spoken by the Iroquoian peoples in the northeastern United States and southeastern Canada. In Quebec, the nations whose languages belong to this family are the Wendat and the Kanien'kehá:ka.

The Indian Act is a federal law enacted in 1876 that governs the legal identity of First Nations and establishes an administrative and political framework set forth by the Canadian government. It was through this Act that terms such as “reserve,” “band,” and “band council” were introduced into the legal framework. The Act does not apply to the Inuit or the Métis, which explains why these Indigenous peoples are not included in the category of First Nations.

The longhouse is a traditional political structure among the Haudenosaunee, particularly among the Kanien'kehá:ka. This system is based on a society organized into matrilineal clans, within which clan leaders gather under one roof to deliberate on social and political issues, following the principle of consensus. This institution remains active to this day.

Makivvik is a political advocacy organization representing the Inuit of Nunavik, Quebec, established in 1978 following the signing of the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement (JBNQA). Its name means “to rise” in Inuktitut. Its role is to protect the rights, interests, and financial compensation arising from the JBNQA, as well as the rights stemming from the Nunavik Inuit Land Claims Agreement, signed in 2008. Composed of a president and various elected officials, Makivvik acts as the official representative in dealings with governments and national institutions on a range of issues, including education, justice, and the environment.

The practices, knowledge, and philosophies related to health and well-being among Indigenous peoples are often described as falling within the realm of traditional medicine. Although this term suggests a connection to millennia-old traditions, this form of medicine remains relevant today and is practiced in many communities. It differs from biomedicine in its conception of health and well-being, which encompasses not only personal dimensions—spiritual, physical, mental, and emotional—but also familial, community, and territorial dimensions. This medicine uses remedies derived from plants, animals, and minerals, as well as practices focused on balance and harmony within the individual and with their environment. This is why traditional medicine is often described as holistic.

In Canada, the Métis are one of the three categories of Indigenous peoples recognized by the Canadian Constitution. The Métis are a people descended from both European and Indigenous populations, with their own culture, their own history rooted in a specific geographical context, and their own language. Specific criteria have been established by the Supreme Court of Canada to determine Métis identity. In Quebec, there are no recognized Métis communities.

The Mi'kmaq Nation is found in eastern Canada, in the Gaspé Peninsula, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland. There are three Mi'kmaq communities in Quebec: Listuguj, Gesgapegiag, and Gespeg. Their language is Mi'kmaq, which belongs to the Algonquian language family. They are members of the Wabanaki Confederation.

The Naskapi Nation is located in northern Quebec. The only Naskapi community in the world is Kawawachikamach. Their language is Iyuw Iyimuun, which belongs to the Algonquian language family. The Naskapi are signatories to one of the few modern treaties in Quebec, the Northeastern Quebec Agreement.

When applied to Indigenous peoples, the term “nation” refers primarily to First Nations. The terms “Inuit” and “Métis” are used more generally to refer to these groups, while the term “nation” is used more specifically to refer to particular First Nations groups, such as the Wolastoqey Nation, the Wendat Nation, or the Mi’kmaq Nation.

The Peace of the Brave is the name given to the “Agreement Concerning a New Relationship Between the Government of Quebec and the Cree of Quebec,” an agreement signed between Quebec and the Cree Nation in 2002. This agreement was reached following several legal actions by the Cree in response to the Government of Quebec’s failure to honor many of the commitments made in the James Bay and Northern Quebec Agreement, signed in 1975. The Paix des Braves grants the Cree greater autonomy regarding the economic development of the territory and the exploitation of natural resources, in addition to providing annual grants over 50 years for the development of Cree communities. In return, the Cree grant their consent to the development of hydroelectric projects on the territory, including the EM-1 project on the Rupert River.

Indigenous residential schools, also known as residential schools, refer to the educational system imposed on Indigenous children by the Government of Canada and administered by the Catholic, Anglican, and Presbyterian churches. The purpose of the boarding schools was to evangelize and gradually assimilate Indigenous peoples by separating children from their families and forbidding them from speaking their language or practicing their culture. Approximately 150,000 Indigenous children attended these institutions; many of them suffered violence and abuse, leaving lasting and intergenerational trauma across Indigenous communities in Canada. The Truth and Reconciliation Commission, whose mandate was to assess the impacts of residential schools on Indigenous peoples, recognized this system as part of a “cultural genocide.” Canada and the responsible churches have issued official apologies to the affected Indigenous communities.

An approach that focuses on the capabilities, resources, and knowledge of individuals and communities rather than on their shortcomings. It recognizes and values the strengths of First Nations and Inuit peoples, including their traditional knowledge, community relationships, and cultures.

A term used to refer to Indigenous peoples, emphasizing the diversity that exists within these various groups. This term also applies to all Indigenous peoples worldwide.

These individuals are recognized within their communities as having a deep knowledge and understanding of their people’s culture, rituals, and traditions. As a result, they are qualified to pass this knowledge on to others.

A care approach that acknowledges the prevalence of trauma, understands its potential health impacts, and tailors services to prevent retraumatization. This approach is particularly important in Indigenous contexts due to historical and intergenerational trauma.

Refers to Indigenous peoples subject to the Indian Act. The term “First Nation” has replaced, in common usage and in legal documents, the term “Indian band,” which was used when the Act was drafted. There are 10 First Nations in Quebec: the W8banaki, Anishinaabe, Atikamekw, Eeyou, Wendat, Innu, Wolastoqey, Mi'kmaq, Kanien'kehá:ka, and Naskapi Nations.

Another term used to refer to Indigenous peoples. This term also applies to all Indigenous peoples worldwide.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763, issued by King George III following the Seven Years’ War, is recognized as the country’s first constitution. It established the recognition of Indigenous peoples as holders of legitimate territorial rights in North America, as well as the principle that only the Crown may acquire Indigenous lands, thereby laying the foundation for the treaty system. Today, the Royal Proclamation remains a legal text invoked by Indigenous peoples in Canada to secure recognition of their ancestral rights, territorial rights, and treaty rights.

The concept of “race” has no scientific basis. Racism is based on this unfounded concept and assumes that human beings have different cognitive and physical abilities depending on their “race.” It remains deeply entrenched in many societies, particularly in forms that are sometimes difficult to detect in laws, policies, or practices. Racism can also shape the formation of unconscious biases. It is thus possible to perpetuate racism without consciously or intentionally holding racist views.

Systemic racism refers to the set of societal structures—institutions, laws, and policies—that perpetuate a system of inequality that privileges certain groups and oppresses others based on the “race” assigned to them. This form of racism has nothing to do with individual intentions, nor does it imply that a “systematic” form of racism exists within a society. Rather, it refers to the way in which norms, procedures, laws, and social structures continue to perpetuate a form of racism inherited from the time of their creation.

The 1960s Roundup refers to a child welfare policy implemented in Canada from the 1960s to the 1980s, during which thousands of Indigenous children were taken from their families to be adopted or placed with non-Indigenous families, often without consent. This policy facilitated the assimilation of Indigenous children by severing their family, community, and cultural ties. Although the wrongs have been publicly acknowledged, the trauma and intergenerational consequences are still being experienced by survivors and communities.

Reconciliation is a process aimed at repairing relationships with Indigenous peoples following centuries of colonialism and systemic violence. It has become an increasingly prominent issue in the public sphere since the Truth and Reconciliation Commission and its 94 calls to action. Since then, numerous organizations, institutions, and businesses have taken steps to embark on a reconciliation process. There are many definitions and conceptualizations of reconciliation, and it can take many forms.

The term “territorial acknowledgment” refers to a statement recognizing that the location where an organization is based or an event is held is situated on the ancestral lands of one or more First Nations, Métis, or Inuit peoples. Territorial acknowledgment serves to honour and respect the territory and the Indigenous peoples living there or who have lived there, as well as to honour their past, present, and future connections to the territory.

“Redwashing” refers to symbolic actions through which an organization, institution, or company projects an image of supporting Indigenous peoples without actually improving their conditions or rights. This often involves the superficial use of Indigenous symbols, language, or collaborations, without challenging or changing existing practices. In reality, these practices undermine efforts toward self-determination and justice for Indigenous peoples.

The ability to critically examine one’s own beliefs, values, and power dynamics, as well as their influence on one’s practice and thinking. An essential component of cultural safety.

In the Indian Act, the term “reserve” refers to “a parcel of land owned by Her Majesty and set aside for the use and benefit of a band” (Indian Act, R.S.C. (1985), c. 1-5). It is a territory administered collectively by an Indigenous community, but the land remains under the jurisdiction of the Crown. The term “reserve” should be avoided in everyday language; it is preferable to use the term “community.”

Cultural safety is a concept that emerged in the 1980s in New Zealand, following the observation that Indigenous peoples were not receiving the same quality of care in health care systems as other citizens. It aims to provide public services better adapted to Indigenous realities by creating a so-called safe space where Indigenous people receiving services feel respected, recognized, and protected from racism. Cultural safety requires concrete institutional transformation, calling for the challenge and transformation of systemic barriers (often of colonial origin) present in public institutions.

A traditional governance system is a form of political and social organization based on the values, laws, and knowledge of an Indigenous people, rather than on colonial models such as the Indian Act. These are systems that predate European contact and may still be practiced today, even if they are not always recognized by governments. For example, the longhouse system, the chiefs of family hunting territories, or confederative systems such as the Wabanaki Confederacy are all traditional governance systems.

An inherent and collective right, recognized by the Supreme Court of Canada, arising from Indigenous peoples’ occupation, use, and control of ancestral lands prior to colonization. Ancestral title is a category of ancestral rights.

The Numbered Treaties are a series of 11 treaties concluded between the British Crown and Indigenous peoples between 1871 and 1921. The territories covered stretch from northern Ontario to the Rocky Mountains, and as far north as the Beaufort Sea in the Yukon and the Northwest Territories. Most of these agreements involve exchanges in which the First Nations concerned agree to relinquish certain rights to their ancestral lands in exchange for various payments and promises, including the distribution of annuities, hunting and fishing gear, and special rights to the lands covered by the treaties. It should be noted that these treaties are the subject of numerous controversies and challenges.

Intergenerational trauma experienced by Indigenous peoples refers to the transmission of psychological, cultural, and social wounds from one generation to the next, typically caused by colonial policies such as the residential school system and the Roundup of the 1960s. Thus, even without having directly experienced this violence, the descendants of survivors still feel its effects, which manifest notably in language loss, cultural disconnection, emotional distress, broken family ties, and substance abuse. Intergenerational trauma also persists through social conditions inherited from colonialism, particularly poverty and marginalization.

A northern village is an Inuit municipal entity in Nunavik established under the Act respecting northern villages and the Kativik Regional Government, often referred to as the Kativik Act. A northern village has essentially the same obligations, responsibilities, public services, and powers as other municipalities in Quebec. Its legal status guarantees the recognition of Inuit territorial rights as well as their local autonomy. There are 14 northern villages in Nunavik: Ivujivik, Kangiqsujuaq, Salluit, Akulivik, Inukjuak, Kuujjuarapik, Puvirnituq, Umiujaq, Aupaluk, Kangiqsualujjuaq, Kangirsuk, Kuujjuaq, Quaqtaq, and Tasiujaq.

The W8banaki Nation has two communities in Quebec: Odanak and Wôlinak. Their language, Aln8ba8dwaw8gan, also known as the Abenaki language, belongs to the Algonquian language group. The W8banaki Nation is also a member of the Wabanaki Confederation.

The Wendat Nation comprises a single community in Quebec: Wendake. When Europeans arrived, the Wendat Confederacy was based in the Great Lakes region, particularly around Georgian Bay. Following the wars and epidemics of the 17th century, the Wendat were forced to disperse, with some seeking refuge in the United States and others in the Quebec City region. Their language is Wendat, which belongs to the Iroquoian language family.

In Quebec, the Wolastoqey Nation consists solely of the Wolastoqiyik Wahsipekuk community (Wolastoqiyik being the plural of Wolastoqey). There are six Wolastoqey communities in New Brunswick. The community has its offices in Cacouna, in the Bas-Saint-Laurent region. After being forced off their only reserve in Quebec, most members of the Wahsipekuk community scattered across Quebec and the United States. Their language is Wolastoqey Latuwewakon, which belongs to the Algonquian language family. They are also members of the Wabanaki Confederation.